Organic Agriculture

Organic agriculture is a method of agricultural production that aims to respect natural systems and cycles, maintain and improve the state of the soil, water and air, the health of plants and animals, and the balance between them.

Fruits and Vegetables grown in organic agriculture.

To this end, it excludes the use of most of the synthetic chemicals, used in particular by industrial and intensive agriculture since the beginning of the 20th century, genetically modified organisms by transgenesis, note 1, and the conservation of crops by irradiation. Soil fertilization and plant protection must therefore be ensured by giving priority to the use of fertilizers and pesticides derived from natural substances. These are called biopesticides. Organic farming practices are subject to restrictive standards that allow for product labeling and a generally higher selling price. The motivations of farmers and consumers may be better income, better occupational health, environmental protection or perceived healthier products. Organic farming requires that animals be kept in more welfare-friendly conditions than conventional farming.

Defined since the 1920s, organic agriculture has been organized on a global scale since 1972 (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements – IFOAM) and recognized since 1999 in the Codex Alimentarius, a joint program of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization. Organic agriculture is one of the forms of sustainable agriculture; the name “organic”, or its abbreviation “bio”, is legally protected and implies a certification. Several international labels have been defined to recognize this type of agriculture.

Since 1990, the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly, reaching $63 billion worldwide in 2012. This demand has been accompanied by an increase in the area of farmland dedicated to organic agriculture, which grew by an average of 8.9% per year between 2001 and 2011. Globally, more than 37.2 million hectares were under organic farming at the end of 2011, representing 0.9% of the agricultural land in the 162 countries considered in the calculation. In 2015, organic farming occupied 6.2% of the European Union’s utilized agricultural area.

Definitions

The French term “agriculture biologique” appeared around 1950 as an equivalent of the English term organic farming, which appeared a decade earlier. This term refers to the fact that in organic farming the fertilization of the soil and the protection against parasites are ensured by biological processes, whereas conventional farming makes greater use of synthetic inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, hormones).

Several similar definitions have been proposed:

“Organic agriculture is a production system that maintains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than on the use of inputs with harmful effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science for the benefit of the common environment […]”

• International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

“Organic production is a holistic system of agricultural management and food production that combines best environmental practices, a high degree of biodiversity, preservation of natural resources, application of high animal welfare standards and a method of production that respects the preference of some consumers for products obtained through natural substances and processes.”

• Council of the European Union Regulation (EC) No. 834/2007

“Organic production is a comprehensive system of agricultural management and food production that combines best environmental and climate action practices, a high degree of biodiversity, the preservation of natural resources and the application of high animal welfare standards and high production standards meeting the demand expressed by a growing number of consumers for products obtained through natural substances and processes.”

• Regulation (EU) 2018/848 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018

Foundations

The organic farming movement was formed in reaction to the advent of agrochemicals in the middle of the 20th century, and especially to the development of the use of mineral fertilizers derived from synthetic chemistry since the end of the First World War.

The emergence of organic agriculture was accompanied by numerous criticisms of the evolution of agricultural practices. In particular, the following are criticized

• The abandonment of a holistic (or holistic) vision of nature and the belief in a benevolent nature;
• The materialistic conception of industrial agriculture, which neglects the importance of the “vitality” of food produced by a living soil;
• The rejection of traditional practices and the preponderant role of humus (notably for Albert Howard and Masanobu Fukuoka);
• The degradation of social ties and peasant freedoms, following the restructuring of the 19th century and the development of large agro-industrial groups (Müller);
• The development of a reductionist vision of the world and the instrumentalization of nature at the expense of a more spiritual relationship with it, and the disenchantment that accompanies this relationship to the world (Steiner, Fukuoka);
• The authority of an agronomic science confined to the laboratory and detached from the realities of the field (Howard, Fukuoka);
• The predominance of financial and commercial interests in farm design and technological developments, generally at the expense of soil fertility (Howard, Müller, Fukuoka).

The rejection of the use of synthetic products in agricultural production and the desire to produce better quality food came later. They are currently the main criteria taken into account by organic farming labels.

Divergence on the concept

The ideology of the precursors (e.g. Edward Goldsmith) is marked by a certain nostalgia for the past. The theme of returning to the land is often present. [The opposition to productivism remains present today, leading some actors to worry about the development of large-scale organic farming, driven by the same productivist logic that was reproached to conventional farming.

However, the opposition between the past and modernity has its limits. The massive use of chemistry in agriculture is not new: copper, arsenic, lead, sulfur, and synthetic fertilizers have been used since the end of the 19th century. Some treatments have been known since antiquity.

Today, organic agriculture is an economic activity far from these considerations, and represents for many farmers a way to make their production more profitable and for consumers a way to protect the environment. It is often perceived as more modern and “younger” than conventional agriculture. Overall, organic farming is supported by a younger population of farmers than conventional farming, contributing to the modern image of this technique.

Concepts with different expectations and constraints

In practice, organic agriculture can be broken down into different conceptual models linked to the different economic and technical models that often oppose them, often linked to the size of the farm. Some advocate more autonomy in a system with small and medium-sized farms, for example polyculture-breeding or market gardening, attached to short circuits and links with the consumer, and others advocate technical performance and bio-intensive cultivation oriented essentially towards large-scale crops, for example cereals or vegetables, which represent a very important part of the production and often the only production.

Evolution of models towards a more sustainable organic agriculture

In addition to the specifications imposed by the practice of organic agriculture, certain complementary transversal practices are emerging that break with the technical concept.

Better respect for the soil

The values of respect for the soil through its understanding as well as respect for its natural functioning is observed from the practices of conservation agriculture (CA) with different values, particularly concerning the use of pesticides and in particular glyphosate, which this conservation agriculture allows itself on occasion, but where, in its model, the reduction or even the non-working of the soil is associated with a permanent and varied cover.

The challenge for organic agriculture is to draw inspiration from these techniques in order to reduce soil activity as much as possible in order to control weeds and increase the natural fertility of the soil, as well as to save time and fuel.

This awareness of soil fertility preservation is not only technical and financial but also agronomic and environmental. It also makes it possible to limit soil erosion, to better control water loss from the soil and to benefit from better carbon storage, with the additional challenge of adapting to climate change.

Implementations of organic farming systems

“An organic farm, strictly speaking, is not one that uses certain methods and substances and avoids others; it is a farm whose structure mimics the structure of a natural system that has the integrity, independence, and benign dependence of an organism.”

• Wendell Berry, The Gift of Good Land.

According to scientist-turned-breeder Xavier Noulhianne, until the 1980s, organic methods were primarily concerned with crop production11 and were differentiated primarily by soil amendment techniques. This author distinguishes the following techniques:

1. The English agrobiological method (Howard);
2. The biodynamic method (Steiner);
3. The silica rock method (Müller);
4. The lithotham method or Lemaire-Boucher method.

Other specific techniques, or those borrowed from conventional agriculture, are also used:

• Biological control and sexual confusion protect crops from parasites, and insect pests, for example through the use of entomophagous insects.
• The use of certain phytosanitary products is authorized in organic agriculture (copper, sulfur, pyrethrins, etc.).
• Associated crops, by combining several plant species on the same plot, limit the proliferation of pests and parasites; the three sisters technique is an example.
• Permaculture is a design method that allows crops to be planned, among other things, to make the best use of local climatic and geographical conditions, and to maximize interactions between crops.
• Agroforestry integrates trees into farms.
• Simplified cultivation techniques limit tillage; this technique is difficult in organic agriculture because it increases the risk of weed proliferation.
• Direct seeding under cover makes it possible to return the nutrients taken from the soil to the soil, to maintain the bacteria allowing their assimilation by the plants, and to limit the development of weeds. This technique, which comes from conservation agriculture is quite delicate in organic agriculture because of weed management, even if the risk is lower than with simplified cultivation techniques (presence of protective mulch, higher mortality of unwanted seeds that remain on the surface).

• Composting and mulching allow the return of nutrients taken from the soil, limit the effects of bad weather, and maintain the development of humus.
• Slurry is primarily a fertilizer, but it also has effects on pests.
• Biointensive microagriculture.
• No-till farming and natural agriculture focuses on minimal or no mechanical cultivation and plowing for grain crops.

Organic farming methods combine scientific knowledge of ecology and modern technology with traditional farming practices based on natural biological processes. Organic farming methods are studied in the field of agroecology. While conventional agriculture uses synthetic pesticides and water-soluble purified synthetic fertilizers, organic farmers are restricted by regulation to the almost exclusive use of natural pesticides and fertilizers.

The main methods of organic farming to improve soil fertility and protect crops include crop rotation, green manures and compost, biological control and mechanical cultivation. These measures use the natural environment to improve agricultural productivity: legumes are planted to fix nitrogen in the soil, beneficial organisms are encouraged, crop rotation confuses pests and renews the soil, and natural materials such as potassium bicarbonate and mulch are used to control diseases and weeds. More hardy plants are generated through selective plant breeding rather than genetic engineering.

Many of the methods developed for organic agriculture have been subsequently used by conventional agriculture. For example, integrated pest management (IPM) is a strategy that uses a variety of biological pest control methods, which are also sometimes used in conventional agriculture.

Crop diversity

Crop diversity is a distinguishing feature of organic agriculture. Conventional agriculture most often focuses on intensive production of a crop in one location, a practice that facilitates harvesting. When the same crop is grown every year, it is called a monoculture. Monoculture is not compatible with organic agriculture because it favors the development of insect pests, which cannot be effectively controlled by organic methods. The science of agroecology has revealed the advantages of polyculture (several crops in the same space), which is often implemented by organic agriculture. Planting a variety of vegetable crops supports a wide range of beneficial insects, soil microorganisms and other factors that add to the overall health of the farm. Crop diversity helps protect endangered species.

Soil Management

Organic agriculture relies heavily on the natural decomposition of organic matter, using techniques such as green manures and composting, to replace nutrients removed from the soil by previous crops. This biological process, through microorganisms such as mycorrhizae, allows for the natural production of nutrients in the soil throughout the growing season. Organic farming uses a variety of methods to improve soil fertility: crop rotation, cover crops, reduced tillage, and compost application. By reducing tillage, the soil is not inverted and exposed to the air; less carbon is lost to the atmosphere. This has an added benefit of carbon sequestration which reduces the greenhouse effect and helps reverse climate change.

Plants need nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, as well as micronutrients and symbiotic relationships with fungi and other organisms to grow. But getting enough nitrogen at the right time, when plants need it most, is a challenge for organic farmers, who must manage this timing. Crop rotation and green manure help provide nitrogen through legumes (specifically, the Fabaceae family) that fix nitrogen from the atmosphere through symbiosis with rhizobium bacteria. Co-planting, which is sometimes used for insect and disease control, can also increase soil nutrients, but competition between legumes and crops can be problematic and spacing between crop rows is necessary. Crop residues can be carried into the soil, and different plants leave different amounts of nitrogen, which could help with timing. Organic farmers also use animal manure, some processed fertilizers such as seed meal, and various mineral powders such as rock phosphate and greensand, a natural form of potash that provides potassium. Together, these methods help control erosion. In some cases, the pH must be modified. There are natural pH modifiers such as lime and sulfur, but in the U.S. certain compounds such as iron sulfate, aluminum sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and soluble boron products are allowed in organic agriculture.

Mixed farms with livestock and crops may operate as “ley farms”, whereby the land accumulates fertility through the growth of nitrogen-fixing forage grasses such as white clover or tame alfalfa, and on which cash or grain crops are grown when the soil is rich. Farms without livestock may find it more difficult to maintain soil fertility, and may rely more on external inputs such as off-farm nutrients and grain legumes and green manures, although grain legumes may fix nitrogen to a limited extent as they are harvested. Horticultural (fruit and vegetable) farms that operate under protected conditions are often even more dependent on outside inputs.

Research on soil biology and organisms has proven beneficial to organic farming. Many varieties of bacteria and fungi break down chemicals, plant material and animal waste into nutrients that make the soil more productive for future crops. Fields with little or no manure show a considerable decrease in yields, due to a decrease in soil microbial fauna.

Weed Management

Organic weed management promotes weed control or limitation by increasing crop competition and using phytotoxic effects on weeds. In Europe, organic farmers integrate cultural, biological, mechanical, physical and chemical tactics to control weeds without synthetic herbicides. Organic standards require annual crop rotation, which means that one crop cannot be grown in the same location without another, the intermediate crop. Organic crop rotation often includes cover crops with different life cycles to discourage weeds associated with a particular crop. Research is underway to develop biological methods to promote the growth of natural microorganisms that suppress the growth or germination of common weeds.

Other cultural practices used to improve crop competitiveness and reduce weed pressure include selection of competitive crop varieties, high-density planting, close row spacing, intercropping (e.g., cereal and fabaceae), and late planting in warm soil to promote rapid crop germination.

Mechanical and physical weed control practices used on organic farms can be grouped as follows:

• Tilling – turning the soil between crops to incorporate crop residues and additives; removing existing weeds and preparing a seedbed for planting; turning the soil again after planting to kill weeds;
• Mowing and trimming – cutting off the tops of weeds;
• Fire and thermal weeding – using heat to kill weeds;
• Mulching – blocking weeds with organic material, plastic film, or landscape fabric;
• Precision hoeing with electronic guidance in the case of weeds such as corn.

Some critics, citing work published in 1997 by David Pimentel of Cornell University, who describes soil erosion as a major threat to global agriculture, believe that tillage contributes to this erosion. The FAO and other organizations have advocated a “no-till” approach for both conventional and organic farming, and specifically point out that the crop rotation techniques used in organic farming are excellent for this approach. A study published in 2005 by Pimentel and colleagues confirms that “crop rotation and cover crops (green manure) typical of organic farming reduce soil erosion, pest problems, and pesticide use. Some naturally occurring chemicals are permitted for herbicidal use. These include some formulations of acetic acid (concentrated vinegar), corn gluten, and essential oils. Some selective bioherbicides based on fungal pathogens have also been developed. For the time being, however, biological herbicides and bioherbicides play a minor role in the biological weed control toolbox.

Weeds can be controlled by grazing. For example, geese have been used successfully to control weeds in organic cotton, strawberry, tobacco and corn crops, and have revived the practice of keeping Cotton Patch geese, which were common in the southern United States before the 1950s. Similarly, some rice farmers are introducing ducks and fish into wet rice fields to eat weeds and insects.

Control of other organisms

Organisms, other than weeds, that cause problems on organic farms are arthropods (insects, mites), nematodes, fungi and bacteria. Organic practices include, but are not limited to:

• Encouraging beneficial predatory insects to control pests by installing nursery stock and/or alternative habitat, usually in the form of a windbreak, hedgerow, or beetle bank ;
• Encourage beneficial microorganisms;
• Rotate crops in different locations from year to year to interrupt pest reproduction cycles;
• Planting companion crops and repellent plants that discourage or distract pests;
• Covering rows to protect crops during periods of pest migration;
• Use organic pesticides and herbicides;
• Use sanitation to eliminate pest habitat;
• Use insect traps to monitor and control insect populations;
• Use physical barriers.

Control by intervention of other living things

Beneficial predatory insects include bugs, and to a lesser extent, ladybugs (which tend to fly away), all of which eat a wide range of pests. Lacewings are also effective, but tend to fly away. Praying mantises tend to move more slowly and eat less. Parasitoid wasps tend to be effective on their chosen prey, but like all small insects can be less effective outdoors because wind disrupts their movement. Predatory mites are effective in controlling other mites.

The substances allowed in organic control by the AB label regulations are divided into seven categories:

• Active substances of animal or plant origin (nettle manure, plant oils, pyrethrins, etc.);
• Microorganisms;
• Substances produced by micro-organisms;
• Substances to be used only in traps or dispensers (e.g. pheromones and some pyrethroids);
• Preparations to be dispersed on the surface between crops (molluscicides);
• Other substances traditionally used in organic agriculture (e.g. copper, sulfur, kerosene oil, etc.);
• Other substances such as calcium hydroxide and potassium bicarbonate.

In principle, organic farmers prefer to maintain the balance of auxiliary fauna (including dung beetles, which are necessary for the rapid recycling of animal excrement in the soil) by favoring useful fauna and natural predators rather than indiscriminately eliminating all animal activity.

Control by chemical intervention

Naturally occurring insecticides approved for use on organic farms include Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacterial toxin), pyrethrum (a chrysanthemum extract), spinosad (a bacterial metabolite), and neem oil (from the neem tree). Less than 10% of organic farmers use these pesticides regularly; one survey showed that only 5.3% of vegetable growers in California use rotenone (banned in the European Union), while 1.7% use pyrethrum. These pesticides are not always safer or more environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides and can cause harm. Some of these substances are controversial, including rotenone, copper, spinosad and pyrethrum. Rotenone and pyrethrum are particularly controversial because they attack the nervous system, like most conventional insecticides. Rotenone is highly toxic to fish and can induce Parkinson’s-like symptoms in mammals. Rotenone was approved until October 10, 2008. Although pyrethrum (natural pyrethrins) is more effective against insects when used with piperonyl butoxide (which delays the breakdown of pyrethrins), organic standards generally do not allow the use of the latter substance.

Fungicides permitted for use on organic farms include the bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus pumilus, and the fungus Trichoderma harzianum. They are primarily effective against root diseases. Compost tea contains a mixture of beneficial microbes, which may attack or supplant some plant pathogens, but precautions must be taken during the preparation of this “tea” to avoid the development of toxic microbes.

Some naturally occurring pesticides are not permitted for use on organic farms. These include nicotine sulfate, arsenic, rotenone (in the European Union) and strychnine.

Pesticides must be derived from natural substances or their derivatives. In Europe, those that are authorized are indicated in the regulations; they include laminarin (extracted from algae) or pyrethrin (extracted from chrysanthemums). Some synthetic products are also authorized, such as calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), kerosene oil. Some copper compounds are allowed, to allow the Bordeaux mixture, but this permission is highly contested.

Copper sulphate and Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate with lime), approved for organic use in different countries, have been criticized. Bordeaux mixture, which is used in organic and conventional viticulture and fruit growing, is approved despite its environmental toxicity. Similar concerns apply to copper hydroxide. Repeated application of copper sulfate or copper hydroxide as a fungicide can eventually cause copper to accumulate to toxic levels in the soil, and warnings to avoid excessive copper accumulation in the soil appear in various organic standards and elsewhere. Environmental concerns about several types of living organisms arise at average rates of use of these substances for some crops. In the European Union, where the replacement of copper-based fungicides in organic agriculture is a policy priority, research is seeking alternatives for organic production.

Some organic farmers use natural insecticides. In France, neem is often banned in agriculture 69 but regularly gets temporary marketing authorizations, including from March 2 to June 30, 2017, and from February 28 to June 28, 2018.

The superiority of the environmental profile of AB-approved pesticides over other pesticides is not unanimous. While some natural pesticides degrade faster than synthetic products with the same use, others such as sulfur and copper are not biodegradable.

Source : wikipedia.org